WHY ARE INFANTS KEPT ON MILK?

MILK -

The first kind of food a baby gets is mother's milk. Why is this so?

Milk is a highly nutritious food substance with which the female mammals feed their young. It contains most of the nutrients needed for growth and is, for most mammals, the main source of nutrition for several months after birth. In fact, the milk of each species of mammals, including human beings, is a complete, wholesome and easily digestible food for its own young ones after their birth. Milk is produced in special glands called mammary glands. Most of the female mammals have teats or nipples from which their young can suck milk. These teats are connected to the mammary glands by a series of tiny ducts.

Although the same ingredients are present in the milk of all mammals, their proportions vary. Milk is 80%-90% water. It contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. These constituents are needed for growth and repair of bones and tissues and of the normal functioning of the endocrine glands which produce hormones for growth. Proteins (mostly casein and albumin) supply and repair. The carbohydrates (mostly lactose or milk sugar) are a good energy source and help the body absorb calcium and phosphorus. The fats are in tiny droplets. Milk is converted into a soft curd in the stomach of the young one to which digestion can proceed smoothly without the disturbance that fatty foods often cause. Milk also supplies vitamins A, B, C, D, E, K, and niacin. These are needed for formation of healthy bones and tissues.

If a mother takes a diet rich in necessary nutrients, her infant will invariably receive all that he requires from her milk. This will also provide certain antibodies to help build immunity to diseases. Immediately after the birth, the infant needs food every three to four hours, consuming about 600 milliliters of milk a day. By about 6 weeks, this hunger cycle lengthens and the infant may pass a night without needing to be fed.

If human babies are not fed by their mothers, they may be bottle-fed with pasteurized cow's milk, diluted and sweetened or mixing milk powder with water. These can be a valuable substitute for breast milk, but there are hazards involved. If not properly washed, the bottle may contain many bacteria which may cause the harmful diseases to the baby.

Some mothers believe that stronger milk helps the infant to sleep and grow better. But this is faulty reasoning. A concentrated feed will contain too much sodium and the infant's kidneys would have to work furiously to eliminate it. This may cause dehydration. Although the infant may appear to be growing quickly yet instead of building stronger bones and more muscles, the baby would just accumulate excess fat, which is not healthy sign.

Babies have also been fed on the milk of goat, buffalo, reindeer, caribou, sheep, camel, llama, and mare etc. During the second part of the first year, the infant is gradually weaned from milk to solid food. It is important that a balanced diet is maintained for proper healthy growth of the baby.

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WHY THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA DOES NOT FALL?

LEANING TOWER -

The Leaning Tower of Pisa is one of the most amazing structures in the world. Located in the city of Pisa, Italy, it is visited by hundreds of people every day. Very few people know the reason for its leaning. Made of white marble, this structure has walls 4 meters thick at its base. It has 8 floors and is 54.5 meters high and measure 15.8 meters around the bases. There is a stairway, which leads to the top and has 300 steps. From its top, it is possible to get a breathtaking view of the city and the sea, which is 10 kilometers away.

Now the question arises - what makes this tower lean and why does it not fall?
Plumbline from the top is meters away from the base, i.e. it leans over by 4 meters. If we drop a ball from its top, it would hit the ground 4 meters away from its base.

Originally, it was intended as a bell-tower for the cathedral, which is nearby.  Its construction was started in 1174 A.D. and completed in 1350 A.D. When the construction started nobody thought that it would lean, but it started leaning as soon as the third story was completed. The foundation of the tower was laid in sand and this may explain why it leans. Since the tower started leaning, the plan for its construction was modified and then the tower was completed. Since 1918, yearly measurements have been made. These measurements show that the leaning is increasing. During the last one hundred years, the tower has leaned another 30 centimeters.

But why does it not fall even while leaning?
According to science, anything will remain stable as long as the vertical line drawn from the center of gravity passes through its base. The center of gravity is that point where the whole mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated. Till today the vertical line from the center of gravity has been falling within the base of the tower. That is why it has not fallen. It is believed that when the tower leans further and the line from its center of gravity passes out of its base, it will fall down.

However, by using different new methods and techniques, engineers and technologists are now trying to arrest further leaning of the tower.

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WHY DO WE GET FEVER?

FEVER -

Fever is one of the most common health disorders that afflict humans. Have you given a thought to why this ailment is so common? The normal body temperature of a healthy person is 98.4F (37 deg.C). Fever is a condition in which the body temperature rises above the normal. It is a common symptom of some diseases.

The heat energy produced by the chemical reactions taking place inside the body is controlled by brain and skin. As long as there is no disease or malfunctioning in the body, the temperature remains at 98.4 deg. F. When germs of any specific disease attack the body, certain reactions take place in the body cells. As a result, the centers controlling the body temperature are affected and, the body temperature starts rising. This rise in temperature is called 'fever'. The first signs of fever are chills, loss of appetite and a feeling of weakness. The body temperature is measured with the help of a clinical thermometer.

Fever is a body mechanism that helps us in destroying the germs of diseases. During fever, some of the body organs start working fast and some physiological processes get accelerated.  The rate of production of hormones, enzymes, and blood cells increases considerably. These hormones, enzymes and blood cells start fighting the germs, causing the body temperature to rise. During fever, blood circulation and respiration become faster. Both these processes help the body in getting rid of the poisonous germs present inside. Fever is often the symptom of infection.

Persistence of any fever for a long period is not good. During fever, the internal parts get heated and there is a deficiency of water causing the contraction of the capillaries of blood and urinary tract. Protein accumulated in the body gets depleted. Disorder sets in, in the brain due to high temperature. It is, therefore, a big mistake to ignore fever and wait for it to pass. Though fever is a physiological activity aimed at fighting any disease, it is absolutely essential to seek immediate medical help once you get it.

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WHY ARE HEAD INJURIES DANGEROUS?

HEAD INJURIES -

In times of war, soldiers use special helmets to protect their heads. While driving a scooter, the riders often wear helmets to protect heads against any injury. In many cities, the government has made the helmets compulsory for riders. Do you know why the protection of the head is necessary?

The most important part of our body, the brain, is located in the cranium under the protection of bones. The human brain is divided into three main parts - the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and medulla oblongata. It controls all the important functions of the body - sight, taste, smell, hearing, touch, movements, memory, speech, etc. Any damage to the brain can disturb the proper body functioning.

Our brain is protected by the thick bone of the skull. Further, a shock absorbing fluid cushions it against the blows bumps. But if the blow is sharp or hard enough, it can injure the skull. Thus to protect the brain from injuries, it is essential to first protect the head.

Now the question arises, what may be the consequences of head injuries?
A severe head injury due to an accident may cause brain hemorrhage which eventually may lead to death. The injury may damage the memory unit of the brain by which a man can lose memory, temporarily or permanently. It has been often seen that after having a severe injury of head, people remain in the coma for long periods.

If the brain tissues are damaged, it may give rise to multiple sclerosis. Parkinson's disease is caused by a disorder of brain chemistry which may result due to a head injury. Brain injury may cause aphasia, a serious disorder of thought and communication. Apart from these effects, many other disabling conditions can be generated by head injuries.

It is, therefore, essential to protect the head against injuries.

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WHEN DID PEOPLE FIRST USE MONEY?

MONEY -

Money has always fascinated man ever since ancient times. Money has come to become the most important thing in the world. Aristotle observed that man is a social being who establishes certain norms and regulations for his social interaction. The man employed money as a mode of exchange to facilitate such social dealings for his economical aspect.

In primitive societies, when people wanted to buy anything, they had to give something else in return for it. For example, if a potter wanted to buy rice from a farmer, he offered him earthenware in exchange for rice. The farmer would accept them because he needed pots. This was called the barter system, which involved goods in exchange for goods.

During those times goods served the purpose of money. But with the development of trade, the barter system could not meet the growing demands of a convenient exchange system for buying and selling. People started using the token or symbolic goods in exchange all over the world. American Indians used beads of shells, Fijians used whale's teeth and North Americans used tobacco in their exchange system. The Roman army men were provided salt for their services. But when was the coin first used as currency?

The precise origin of money in the form of coins is not clearly known. According to the available sources, the earliest coins were minted in about 800 B.C. when Indians who lived in Asia used stamped pieces of metal as a medium of exchange. Some believe that the Chinese used coins even earlier. Coins were preferred because they were easy-to-carry and durable. The early coins were of irregular shape and were stamped with rough designs. The money value of coins depended on the value of the metal that the coins were made of. Coins were mostly made of gold, silver or copper because they were precious and durable metals.

The use of paper currency was known to China as early as in the 9th century but it did not develop in Europe until the 17th century. The governments of different countries favored the use of paper currencies and coins to simplify the monetary dealings. It helped because what mattered was the money value printed or stamped on them and not their real value. This is because the printed value on the currencies denoted their purchasing power as assured by the government. People accept a coin or currency in payment not because they value the coin itself but because they have confidence in the authority that issued it.

As coins are heavy and bulky, larger payments are made in paper money issued by the paper legal authority.

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WHY DOES THE BLOOD GROUP VARY FROM PERSON TO PERSON?

BLOOD GROUP -

Even though the blood of all the human beings looks alike, in reality, it is not so. Our blood is mainly composed of red blood corpuscles, white blood corpuscles, platelets, and plasma. It has been observed from microscopic investigations that molecules of antigens found on the surface of red blood corpuscles are different in different people. Antigen molecules are a kind of proteins that stimulate the production of antibodies. It is this difference in the antigen molecules that give rise to different groups of blood.

In the year 1900, Dr. Karl Landsteiner discovered two kinds of antigen - `A' and `B' type. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1930 for this discovery. Blood containing 'A' type antigen was classified as A group, while that containing 'B' type as B group. Subsequently, it was discovered that the blood of some people contains both A and B type antigens. This type was classified as AB group. The blood that contained neither A nor B type antigens was called O group. Thus the blood of all human beings has been divided into four groups. Studies made till now have revealed the existence of more than 200 groups of human blood.

However, as far as the transfusion of blood to any patient is concerned, only the aforesaid four groups of blood are important. Before transfusing blood to any patient, it is essential to get his blood group tested. It is very essential to match the blood of the patient with that of the donor before transfusion. It has been found that the blood of even real brothers and sisters may not be of the same group. On the other hand, the blood of two individuals belonging to two different states may be of the same group.

If the wrong blood transfused to the patient, he can die, because antigens of different classes cannot combine with each other. However, the blood plasma of one individual can be given to another because it is the same in everybody. Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener discovered another important blood antigen in 1940. This additional factor is called the Rhesus antigen or Rh factor.

Rhesus antibodies do not occur in naturally blood groups - both for recipients and donors. 'AB' group is called the universal recipients whereas `O' is the 'universal donor.

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WHEN DID THE FIRST ALPHABET APPEAR?

ALPHABET -

The origin and development of any language can be traced back to the rudimentary symbols the primitive people used in their verbal interaction. These symbols, when used over a long period, take an established pattern thus giving rise to a new language, But the growth of a language does not stop at oral communication a script for writing is also to be developed. But when did the first alphabet that enabled man to express himself in writing?

The earliest people used pictures for writing which we call pictograph. The stone age people used this form in their writing. In pictograph, a particular sign represents an object such as a tree or a bird which in turn communicates a specific meaning or idea. Ideas could be communicated through picture writing in the sense that the picture of a bird might mean flying.

The ancient Egyptians also used picture writing. But this form had its limitations. It required thousands of pictures, which were also called characters, to symbolize a few things. This drawback of pictograph led to the discovery of signs that represented sounds used in verbal communication. These signs representing different sounds were grouped differently to form new words. But when did the sound-signs first appear which we now call alphabet?

About 3500 years ago, the Phoenicians in the eastern Mediterranean, invented the first alphabet. Later the Greeks and Romans developed their own alphabet which were improvements of the Phoenician script. In fact, the word 'alphabet' is derived from two words alpha (a) and beta (b) which were the first two letters in the Greek alphabet. The appearance of the alphabet made it easier to create thousands of words using a few alphabets. For example, there are only 26 letters in English alphabet but just imagine how many words we make out of these 26 letters. Pictograph lacked this advantage since one picture represented only one meaning or idea.

Now, most of the languages in the civilized world have their own alphabet but the number of letters in the alphabet and their pronunciation differ from language to language.

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