WHY ARE INFANTS FED MILK? Essential Facts Every Parent Should Know

MILK -

Milk: the first essential food for babies

The first food a baby receives after birth is breast milk. This simple yet remarkable substance plays a vital role in the survival and growth of newborns. But why is milk the main food source of young people? Let's jump into the attractive world of milk. It is essential for babies in the early stages of life, such as their ingredients, advantages, and science. Milk is a nutritious fluid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals. It is nature's way of ensuring that newborn babies receive the essential nutrients they need for growth, development, and immunity. The milk of each mammalian species, including humans, is specifically designed to meet the unique needs of its offspring, making it a complete, healthy, and easily digestible food for newborn babies. What are the characteristics of milk?

Milk is a complex liquid that contains water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. These components not only nourish but also play a vital role in the overall development of the baby. The mammary glands, specialized organs in female mammals, produce milk. In most mammals, milk is provided to the young through the nipple, or teat, which is connected to the mammary gland by a complex system of ducts.

All mammalian milk contains similar components, but the proportions vary widely between species. For example, breast milk is only suitable for satisfying children's needs in the development of children. Although it is less protein than milk, it is rich in serious fat and carbohydrates and is ideal for children's delicate digestive systems.

Components of Milk and Their Benefits

Milk is approximately 80%-90% water, ensuring that babies stay hydrated. The remaining 10%-20% consists of vital nutrients, each serving a specific function in the body:

1. Proteins

Casein and Albumin: These proteins are essential for the growth and repair of tissues and muscles. They are easily digestible and provide the building blocks your baby needs for rapid development. 2. Carbohydrates

Lactose: Milk sugar, also known as lactose, is the main source of energy. It also promotes the absorption of calcium and phosphorus, which are essential for strong bones and teeth.

3. Fats

Milk fats exist in the form of tiny droplets, making them easier to absorb. These fats are a rich source of energy and are essential for brain development and the formation of cell membranes. 4. Vitamins

Milk contains a variety of vitamins, including vitamins A, B, C, D, E, K, and niacin. These vitamins support a variety of bodily functions, including:

Vitamin A: Supports healthy vision and immune function.

Vitamin D: Essential for calcium absorption and bone health. B Vitamins: Support brain development and energy metabolism.

5. Minerals

Milk is rich in calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium. These minerals play critical roles in bone and teeth formation, muscle function, and overall cellular health. 6. Antibodies

Colostrum, the thick, yellowish milk produced immediately after birth, is particularly rich in antibodies. They help strengthen the child's immune system, providing protection against infections and diseases.

The science of baby digestion

When milk enters your baby's stomach, it turns into soft curds. This process ensures smooth digestion and prevents disruptions that are often caused by fatty foods. The unique composition of milk ensures gradual and uniform absorption of nutrients, supporting the child's energy needs and growth.

Breast milk: the complete package

For breastfeeding to be effective, the mother's diet must be rich in essential nutrients. This ensures that breast milk contains all the essential nutrients your baby needs. A well-nourished mother transmits:

Essential nutrients: These promote the baby's growth. Antibody for immunity development: Protection of baby from illness.

For the first weeks after birth, the baby usually needs to feed every 3 to 4 hours, consuming about 600 ml milk every day. Over time, as the baby grows, the feeding intervals lengthen, and the baby may sleep through the night without needing nourishment.

Alternatives to Mother’s Milk

While breastfeeding is the gold standard, circumstances may require the use of alternatives. These include:

1. Cow's milk

Often pasteurized, diluted, and sweetened for infants. Cow's milk is a precious substitute but must be modified to meet the nutritional needs of a baby.

2 Formula milk

Mixing formula milk with water is a convenient option. However, it is important to practice good hygiene when preparing the bottles to avoid bacterial contamination. 3. Milk from other mammals

In various cultures, babies were fed milk from goats, buffalo, camels, sheep, and even reindeer. Each type has its nutritional profile but must be used with caution to avoid digestive issues.

Hazards of Improper Feeding Practices

Feeding an infant improperly can lead to serious health issues:

Bacterial Contamination: Unclean bottles can harbor harmful bacteria, leading to diseases. Too much condensed milk: Feeding too much formula or undiluted cow's milk can put strain on your baby's kidneys and lead to dehydration and the accumulation of unhealthy fats.

Transitioning from cow's milk to solid foods

During the second half of the first year, your baby will gradually transition to solid foods. This process, known as weaning, involves transitioning your baby from milk to a more varied diet. Feeding a balanced diet at this stage is essential to promote their continued growth and development. The role of breastfeeding in long-term health

Breastfeeding has long-term benefits for both baby and mother:

For children:

Reduced risk of infection and disease.

Improves cognitive development. You're less likely to develop allergies and chronic diseases.

For mothers:

You'll recover faster after giving birth. Reduce specific cancer risks such as breast and ovarian cancer.

Conclusion

Milk, especially breast milk, is a miracle of nature, and provides all the nutrients required for early development to the baby. It is not only a source of nutrition, but also the foundation of lifelong health and well-being. Although alternatives exist, none can truly replicate the unique composition and benefits of breast milk. Providing proper feeding and a balanced diet for both mother and baby is key to a healthy start in life.

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WHY THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA DOES NOT FALL?

LEANING TOWER -

The Leaning Tower of Pisa is one of the most amazing structures in the world. Located in the city of Pisa, Italy, it is visited by hundreds of people every day. Very few people know the reason for its leaning. Made of white marble, this structure has walls 4 meters thick at its base. It has 8 floors and is 54.5 meters high and measure 15.8 meters around the bases. There is a stairway, which leads to the top and has 300 steps. From its top, it is possible to get a breathtaking view of the city and the sea, which is 10 kilometers away.

Now the question arises - what makes this tower lean and why does it not fall?
Plumbline from the top is meters away from the base, i.e. it leans over by 4 meters. If we drop a ball from its top, it would hit the ground 4 meters away from its base.

Originally, it was intended as a bell-tower for the cathedral, which is nearby.  Its construction was started in 1174 A.D. and completed in 1350 A.D. When the construction started nobody thought that it would lean, but it started leaning as soon as the third story was completed. The foundation of the tower was laid in sand and this may explain why it leans. Since the tower started leaning, the plan for its construction was modified and then the tower was completed. Since 1918, yearly measurements have been made. These measurements show that the leaning is increasing. During the last one hundred years, the tower has leaned another 30 centimeters.

But why does it not fall even while leaning?
According to science, anything will remain stable as long as the vertical line drawn from the center of gravity passes through its base. The center of gravity is that point where the whole mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated. Till today the vertical line from the center of gravity has been falling within the base of the tower. That is why it has not fallen. It is believed that when the tower leans further and the line from its center of gravity passes out of its base, it will fall down.

However, by using different new methods and techniques, engineers and technologists are now trying to arrest further leaning of the tower.

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WHY DO WE GET FEVER?

FEVER -

Fever is one of the most common health disorders that afflict humans. Have you given a thought to why this ailment is so common? The normal body temperature of a healthy person is 98.4F (37 deg.C). Fever is a condition in which the body temperature rises above the normal. It is a common symptom of some diseases.

The heat energy produced by the chemical reactions taking place inside the body is controlled by brain and skin. As long as there is no disease or malfunctioning in the body, the temperature remains at 98.4 deg. F. When germs of any specific disease attack the body, certain reactions take place in the body cells. As a result, the centers controlling the body temperature are affected and, the body temperature starts rising. This rise in temperature is called 'fever'. The first signs of fever are chills, loss of appetite and a feeling of weakness. The body temperature is measured with the help of a clinical thermometer.

Fever is a body mechanism that helps us in destroying the germs of diseases. During fever, some of the body organs start working fast and some physiological processes get accelerated.  The rate of production of hormones, enzymes, and blood cells increases considerably. These hormones, enzymes and blood cells start fighting the germs, causing the body temperature to rise. During fever, blood circulation and respiration become faster. Both these processes help the body in getting rid of the poisonous germs present inside. Fever is often the symptom of infection.

Persistence of any fever for a long period is not good. During fever, the internal parts get heated and there is a deficiency of water causing the contraction of the capillaries of blood and urinary tract. Protein accumulated in the body gets depleted. Disorder sets in, in the brain due to high temperature. It is, therefore, a big mistake to ignore fever and wait for it to pass. Though fever is a physiological activity aimed at fighting any disease, it is absolutely essential to seek immediate medical help once you get it.

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WHY ARE HEAD INJURIES DANGEROUS? Understanding the Risks and Consequences.

HEAD INJURIES -

The Importance of Protection Against Head Injuries :

In today’s society, safeguarding the most vital part of our body—our head—has become a critical priority. Whether it’s a soldier wearing an advanced helmet in war or a motorcyclist adhering to safety standards with protective gear, the emphasis on head protection highlights its essential role. Governments worldwide have implemented measures to minimize the risk of head injuries by mandating the use of helmets in specific activities. But why is protecting the head so important?

Anatomy and Significance of the Brain :

The human brain serves as the body’s command center, encased within the skull and shielded by a strong framework of bones. Despite this natural armor, the brain remains susceptible to injuries. Understanding the potential consequences of head trauma requires a thorough evaluation of the brain’s structure and functions.

Sections of the Brain:

1. Cerebrum:

   • The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions.
   • Controls memory, reasoning, emotions, and voluntary actions such as walking and speaking.

2. Cerebellum:

   • Located beneath the cerebrum, this part ensures balance and coordination.
   • Refines motor movements and ensures precision in physical activities.

3. Medulla Oblongata:

   • Situated in the brainstem, it regulates basic involuntary functions such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

The brain also governs essential sensory functions, including sight, smell, taste, hearing, and touch. This intricate network allows humans to interpret their environment and respond effectively.

Natural Protections for the Brain

The human skull acts as a durable shield against physical impacts. Beneath the skull lies cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which cushions the brain by absorbing minor shocks and preventing direct contact with the skull. While these protections are remarkable, they are not foolproof. A sharp or forceful impact can overwhelm these defenses, resulting in serious brain injuries.

Consequences of Head Injuries

Head injuries can range from mild concussions to life-threatening conditions. The severity and location of the impact determine the outcomes, which may include:

1. Cerebral Hemorrhage:

   • Severe head trauma can cause internal bleeding in the brain, known as a cerebral hemorrhage. If untreated, this condition can quickly escalate and result in death.

2. Memory Loss:

   • Traumatic brain injuries can damage the hippocampus, a region critical for memory formation. Victims may experience temporary or permanent memory loss, affecting both short-term and long-term recall.

3. Coma:

   • Severe trauma can disrupt brain activity, leading to prolonged unconsciousness. Recovery from a coma often depends on the extent of the damage.

4. Neurological Disorders:

   • Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Damage to the myelin sheath of neurons may lead to MS-like symptoms, impairing communication between the brain and the body.
   • Parkinson’s Disease: This progressive condition, characterized by tremors and impaired motor functions, may stem from chemical imbalances caused by head injuries.

5. Aphasia:

   • Injuries to the brain’s language centers can result in aphasia, a condition that disrupts speech production and comprehension, severely affecting communication.

6. Other Cognitive and Physical Impairments:

   • Brain injuries can cause chronic dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, and difficulty concentrating. In severe cases, victims may lose the ability to perform basic tasks and require lifelong assistance.

Preventive Measures to Protect the Head

Given the dire consequences of head injuries, prevention is of utmost importance. Here are some effective strategies:

1. Wearing Helmets:

   • Helmets significantly reduce the risk of head injuries during activities such as cycling, construction work, and sports.
   • Modern helmets are designed with impact-absorbing materials to provide maximum protection.
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2. Promoting Road Safety:

   • Adhering to traffic laws, such as wearing seat belts and maintaining speed limits, can help prevent accidents that often result in head trauma.

3. Implementing Workplace Safety Regulations:

   • Industries involving heavy machinery or hazardous environments should enforce strict safety protocols, including mandatory use of helmets.

4. Raising Public Awareness:

   • Governments and organizations must educate the public about the importance of head protection through seminars, advertisements, and school programs.

5. Technological Innovations:

   • Advances in helmet design and automotive safety features are essential for reducing the impact of accidents.

Long-Term Management of Head Injuries

For individuals who have sustained head injuries, timely medical intervention is crucial. Rehabilitation programs, including physical therapy, occupational therapy, and psychological counseling, play a vital role in recovery. Family and community support are equally important in helping victims regain independence and confidence.

Conclusion

The human brain is the epicenter of all bodily functions and defines our very existence. Despite its natural defenses, it remains vulnerable to injuries with potentially severe consequences. By prioritizing head protection and adopting preventive measures, we can significantly reduce the risks associated with head trauma. A single moment of vigilance can spare you from enduring a lifetime of regret. Let us commit to protecting our heads and, by extension, our futures.

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WHEN DID PEOPLE FIRST USE MONEY?

MONEY -

Money has always fascinated man ever since ancient times. Money has come to become the most important thing in the world. Aristotle observed that man is a social being who establishes certain norms and regulations for his social interaction. The man employed money as a mode of exchange to facilitate such social dealings for his economical aspect.

In primitive societies, when people wanted to buy anything, they had to give something else in return for it. For example, if a potter wanted to buy rice from a farmer, he offered him earthenware in exchange for rice. The farmer would accept them because he needed pots. This was called the barter system, which involved goods in exchange for goods.

During those times goods served the purpose of money. But with the development of trade, the barter system could not meet the growing demands of a convenient exchange system for buying and selling. People started using the token or symbolic goods in exchange all over the world. American Indians used beads of shells, Fijians used whale's teeth and North Americans used tobacco in their exchange system. The Roman army men were provided salt for their services. But when was the coin first used as currency?

The precise origin of money in the form of coins is not clearly known. According to the available sources, the earliest coins were minted in about 800 B.C. when Indians who lived in Asia used stamped pieces of metal as a medium of exchange. Some believe that the Chinese used coins even earlier. Coins were preferred because they were easy-to-carry and durable. The early coins were of irregular shape and were stamped with rough designs. The money value of coins depended on the value of the metal that the coins were made of. Coins were mostly made of gold, silver or copper because they were precious and durable metals.

The use of paper currency was known to China as early as in the 9th century but it did not develop in Europe until the 17th century. The governments of different countries favored the use of paper currencies and coins to simplify the monetary dealings. It helped because what mattered was the money value printed or stamped on them and not their real value. This is because the printed value on the currencies denoted their purchasing power as assured by the government. People accept a coin or currency in payment not because they value the coin itself but because they have confidence in the authority that issued it.

As coins are heavy and bulky, larger payments are made in paper money issued by the paper legal authority.

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WHY DOES THE BLOOD GROUP VARY FROM PERSON TO PERSON?

BLOOD GROUP -

Even though the blood of all the human beings looks alike, in reality, it is not so. Our blood is mainly composed of red blood corpuscles, white blood corpuscles, platelets, and plasma. It has been observed from microscopic investigations that molecules of antigens found on the surface of red blood corpuscles are different in different people. Antigen molecules are a kind of proteins that stimulate the production of antibodies. It is this difference in the antigen molecules that give rise to different groups of blood.

In the year 1900, Dr. Karl Landsteiner discovered two kinds of antigen - `A' and `B' type. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1930 for this discovery. Blood containing 'A' type antigen was classified as A group, while that containing 'B' type as B group. Subsequently, it was discovered that the blood of some people contains both A and B type antigens. This type was classified as AB group. The blood that contained neither A nor B type antigens was called O group. Thus the blood of all human beings has been divided into four groups. Studies made till now have revealed the existence of more than 200 groups of human blood.

However, as far as the transfusion of blood to any patient is concerned, only the aforesaid four groups of blood are important. Before transfusing blood to any patient, it is essential to get his blood group tested. It is very essential to match the blood of the patient with that of the donor before transfusion. It has been found that the blood of even real brothers and sisters may not be of the same group. On the other hand, the blood of two individuals belonging to two different states may be of the same group.

If the wrong blood transfused to the patient, he can die, because antigens of different classes cannot combine with each other. However, the blood plasma of one individual can be given to another because it is the same in everybody. Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener discovered another important blood antigen in 1940. This additional factor is called the Rhesus antigen or Rh factor.

Rhesus antibodies do not occur in naturally blood groups - both for recipients and donors. 'AB' group is called the universal recipients whereas `O' is the 'universal donor.

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WHEN DID THE FIRST ALPHABET APPEAR?

ALPHABET -

The origin and development of any language can be traced back to the rudimentary symbols the primitive people used in their verbal interaction. These symbols, when used over a long period, take an established pattern thus giving rise to a new language, But the growth of a language does not stop at oral communication a script for writing is also to be developed. But when did the first alphabet that enabled man to express himself in writing?

The earliest people used pictures for writing which we call pictograph. The stone age people used this form in their writing. In pictograph, a particular sign represents an object such as a tree or a bird which in turn communicates a specific meaning or idea. Ideas could be communicated through picture writing in the sense that the picture of a bird might mean flying.

The ancient Egyptians also used picture writing. But this form had its limitations. It required thousands of pictures, which were also called characters, to symbolize a few things. This drawback of pictograph led to the discovery of signs that represented sounds used in verbal communication. These signs representing different sounds were grouped differently to form new words. But when did the sound-signs first appear which we now call alphabet?

About 3500 years ago, the Phoenicians in the eastern Mediterranean, invented the first alphabet. Later the Greeks and Romans developed their own alphabet which were improvements of the Phoenician script. In fact, the word 'alphabet' is derived from two words alpha (a) and beta (b) which were the first two letters in the Greek alphabet. The appearance of the alphabet made it easier to create thousands of words using a few alphabets. For example, there are only 26 letters in English alphabet but just imagine how many words we make out of these 26 letters. Pictograph lacked this advantage since one picture represented only one meaning or idea.

Now, most of the languages in the civilized world have their own alphabet but the number of letters in the alphabet and their pronunciation differ from language to language.

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WHY IS CUTTING OF NAILS AND HAIR PAINLESS?

NAILS AND HAIR -

You may have noticed that whenever any part of our body is cut, we experience tremendous pain but when we cut out our hair or nails, we do not feel any pain. Do you know why is it so?

We have, in all, twenty nails on our hands and feet. We do not experience any pain in cutting them because they are composed of dead cells. Nails are special structures of the body formes from the outer layer of the skin. They are made up of a hard material called keratin. Keratin is a kind of dead protein. The base of the nails is located inside the skin of the fingers. The skin beneath the nails is similar to that in other parts of the body, but it has flexible fibers. These fibers are attached to the nails and keep them in a fixed position. Generally, nails are thick but their roots in the skin are very thin. The portion near their roots is white and semi-circular. It is known as lunule. The fingernails grow at the rate of about 2 inches per year. Nails are very useful for our body. They help us in picking up things as well as in doing artistic work. They protect the fingertips too. For ladies, nails are an object of beauty.

Similarly, hair is also a filamentous structure made of keratin - a dead protein. The hair grows on our head about 13 millimeters each month. We have about 100,000 hairs on our head. the base of the hair - the root, as it is often called, is in the form of a round Bulb. About 50 to 100 hairs fall every day. Each hair usually lasts for about 3 years and then it falls. New hairs grow to replace the fallen ones. They grow out of pits in the skin and are called foliates. And, it is the shape of these follicles that make our hair straight, wavy or curly.

Men and women from very ancient times have practiced the custom of cutting and styling the hair. Hairdressing occupies a very important position in grooming and beautification in the present time.

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WHY DO SOME PEOPLE SNORE DURING SLEEP?

SNORING -

You must have definitely come across people who snore during sleep. Their mouth remains open and a peculiar sound comes out while breathing. Do you know why this happens?

Normally, people breath through the nose. But some people's nose remains blocked due to some reason. And thus they breathe through the mouth. Sleeping on the back can also make a person snore. When we are asleep and breath through the mouth, the air coming out causes our soft palate (tissue at the back and top of our mouth) to flutter back and forth. Thus, a strange sound of snoring is produced. Often this vibrations also causes cheeks, lips, and nostrils to vibrate which produces an even louder sound. When we are awake, the palate remains tight and, therefore, no such sound is produced.

If we clean our nose and mouth before sleeping, snoring can be controlled to some extent. This increases the possibility of breathing through the nose rather than through the mouth. If one develops the habit of breathing through nose, the possibility of snoring is greatly reduced.

Breathing through the mouth is harmful to health. The germs of many diseases can enter directly into the mouth and causes disease. If we breathe through the nose, the hairs present in the nose do not allow these germs to enter into the body. It is, therefore, advisable to develop the habit of breathing through the nose.

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WHO WAS MICHAEL FARADAY?

MICHAEL FARADAY -

The great scientist Sir Humphry Davy was once asked by a friend to name his greatest discovery to which he replied ' Michael Faraday'. Faraday was then working as his assistant. Later his contributions in the field of electromagnetism and electrochemistry led to the invention of many things including dynamo and motor.

Born in 1791 in a poor blacksmith family, Faraday began his career at the age of 13 as an errand boy in a bookshop and moved along the pavements of London carrying and delivering newspapers. But his curious and inquisitive mind accompanied by hard work enabled him to reach great heights. His considerate employer in the bookshop taught him the art of book production. Thus Farady found an access to books and devoted his spare time to reading. He had always the inherent desire to achieve something great.

One day, Faraday got the opportunity to attend a lecture by Sir Humphry Davy. Faraday noted down his lectures and sent them to Sir Humphry along with suitable diagrams,. In return, Sir Humphry offered him the post of a laboratory assistant and Faraday served him for a long time. When Faraday got the opportunity to work on his own, his genius flourished. Chemistry was his first love and he invented stainless steel, liquid chlorine, new kinds of optical glasses, benzene etc. He also propounded the laws of electrolysis. He got instant fame when he ventured into the field of electricity. Oersted had earlier discovered that electricity could produce magnetic effects but Faraday started thinking of the reverse phenomenon. He thought if electricity could produce magnetic effects then there must be a way for magnetism to produce electricity. Later he invented the 'magneto-electric machine' that had a spinning disk became the forerunner of a dynamo. A dynamo converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It consists of a powerful magnet and in between the poles of it, a suitable conductor (a coil) is rotated. The mechanical energy generated by rotation is thus converted into an electric current in the coil.

Faraday could not make money out of his inventions as he never bothered for money. Though at some stage of his life he earned a lot of money, he remained poor in his later days. He was generous, charitable and deeply religious. He died in 1867.

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DOES A BLACK CAT BRING BAD LUCK?

BLACK CAT  -

Have you heard someone telling you that a black cat crossing the road is a bad omen and you should not walk on the road if the cat has just passed by? Do you know why a cat in general and a black cat, in particular, is considered inauspicious?

Superstitions have taken various forms over the centuries but one of the most common superstitions that still prevails is that of the 'black cat'. Many people all over the world regard the site of a black cat as inauspicious.

The thought that a black cat is inauspicious in a mere superstition. This superstition goes back to a belief of thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians worshipped cats. They had a goddess called PASHT whose head resembled that of a cat. They believed that this goddess had nine lives. Whenever a black cat died in Egypt, its dead body was preserved as a mummy (the preserved corpse of a human being or animal). Remains of thousands of black cats have been recovered from a cemetery of Egypt. Killing a cat was then considered an offense, punishable with a death sentence. Thus people had a great fear of the sight of a black cat.

During the middle ages, witches and witch doctors always used the skull of a black cat to prepare mysterious medicines. As a result, people started thinking that a black cat brought bad luck and was a bad omen. People have believed in this superstition for many centuries. The truth is that no cat is inauspicious. The cat is a pet animal being domesticated from past 5,000 years.

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WHY DOESN'T FROZEN FOOD GET SPOILED?

FROZEN FOOD -

Have you ever wondered why we store perishable foodstuff in the freezer compartment of our fridge? It is because frozen food does not decompose for a long time and can be preserved for many months. There is an interesting fact about the discovery of the method of preserving food through low temperatures. In 1798, some explorers from Norway camped at the mouth of the river Lena in Northern Siberia. All of a sudden their dogs started barking aloud. When the explorers came out, they found the dogs digging in the snow. As they dug deeper they found the huge body of a dead mammoth. The flesh was dry. The explorers then hacked off a piece and cooked it. They found that it tasted like fresh meat. The last mammoths had died out about 30,000 years ago. This was a dramatic discovery. It meant that food could be preserved over such long periods. Since then, the man started preserving food at low temperatures.

What keeps food from getting spoiled at low temperatures? Food materials decompose because of the microscopic organisms called bacteria. At normal temperatures, bacteria flourish and multiply very fast and decompose the food. But at low temperatures, especially when the water present in the food material is frozen, the bacteria become inactive and stop growing. And thus, the frozen food can be preserved for a long time.

Nowadays, several techniques are being employed to preserve food materials. Among the important ones are the cold storage and freezing of foodstuffs. For the cold storage, many factors are to be kept in the mind. The type of food, the storage temperature and the amount of moisture in the storage room have to be taken into consideration. Cold storage temperatures range from 1Deg.C to 10 Deg.C. Freezing, however, is accomplished with dry ice (solid carbon dioxide), liquid air or nitrogen. Although freezing does not destroy the nutritive value of foods, some vitamins may be lost.

Domestic refrigerators are now widely used for food preservation. But, in a refrigerator, we can't preserve food for a long period. By using low-temperature techniques, great quantities of ice cream, frozen meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables are imported and exported throughout the world every year.

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WHAT IS THE BLACK MAGIC OF WITCH DOCTORS?

BLACK MAGIC -

In the recent times, witches and magic have become very popular due to the books of Harry Potter
. The phenomenon of magic and witch doctors is a very old one. In primitive societies, people had little control over supernatural forces, diseases, or natural calamities, etc. due to limited knowledge and lack of a scientific temper. They were afraid of natural elements because they could not control them. Occultism and mysticism dominated their lives due to ignorance.

The gradual development of science empowered men to deal with events and occurrences that were beyond their control earlier. In the primitive era, people were made to believe in them to resolve their problems. These practices gave rise to a class of people known as witch doctors, black magicians, tantriks, etc. who claimed to have mystical powers to control and influence the supernatural forces. Even today are found in certain primitive societies and villages. Among the practitioners of mysticism, the witch doctor was considered to be an important community member in a tribe. He was able to predict the weather, spot out a thief or a killer. He could treat illness by his magical powers and communicate with the dead.

Witch doctors were supposedly armed with black magic. He used it to frighten people with his power and make them follow his wishes. If he wished he could bring a curse on others, could make the crops fail, cause illness to children, or make people die. He used a variety of methods to curse people to death. Sometimes he made a small figure of the man and stuck pins in it or wound the rope around it. At times, he would get some man's hair or nail cuttings and bury them. As they decayed, the man died a slow death. People believed that he could extract blood and organs with his supernatural powers.

Witch doctors often used herbs and plants for curing illness and purifying water for curing the infection. Sometimes he would sprinkle water on a magic stone. He would chant magical songs, prayers, and dance in a weird manner to impress people. He would even dress up in bright-colored clothes and wear masks or paint his face. Some witch doctors wore hides of the animals. He hypnotized people to make them believe that he was responsible for their good luck. However, most witch doctors are quacks, they have no real power. Unfortunately, many innocent people are still victimized because of their belief in witchcraft.

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WHO WAS MOZART?

MOZART -

Mozart is one of the greatest musicians ever born in the world. Whenever the word music is mentioned, his name is the first to come up. Music has been the main component of our culture since times immemorial. Generation after generation, people have enjoyed and experienced different forms and varieties of music. As a result, every period of history has produced its own breed of musicians, but only a few have been able to make a lasting impact in the minds and hearts of people. Mozart was one such product of the 18th century who went on to become one of the most brilliant composers in the history of music. His great genius was his ability to compose every form of music that included operas, choral, orchestral, and chamber music.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Salzburg, Austria in 1756. His father was a musician at the court of the Archbishop and his sister was also a talented musician. Even as a very young child, Mozart could play violin and harpsichord so well that his father took him on a tour to Europe to play before the Royalty. The trio consisting of Mozart, his father, and sister, were acclaimed wherever they performed. The young Mozart began to compose at the young age of 5. Later he studied music in Italy. Did you know that Mozart composed the poem "'Twinkle, twinkle, little star" when he was just 5 and it is longer than the four lines most of us know?

During his brief life of 35 years, Mozart was able to usher in a change in the trend of music that was prevalent during that time. The symphonies, sonatas and other instrumental works created by him were full of emotional energy. In the pre-Mozart era, music mostly lacked any kind of emotional expression. He is, generally, considered as a classical composer because his symphonies, concerts, and sonatas follow the rules of the musical forms of the classical period. What is not classical about some of Mozart's music is his intense personal touch. Some of his finest compositions sound as if he was pouring his heart out in his music.

Mozart composed some of the finest operas that include The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, The Magic Flute and Cosi Fantulte. He was one of those 18th-century musicians who is bracketed with Beethoven and Hayden for evolving and perfecting the orchestral music. His operas reflected every change of mood and twist of plot. The characters were presented as real people rather than theatrical puppets.

Although Mozart captured great attention as a child artist, his popularity waned with his growing age. As a result, he had to earn his living as a humble musician. He spent a greater part of his life in poverty and his health suffered consequently. He died very suddenly after a short illness. He died in 1791 at the young age of 35. The great composer died so poorly that only the gravedigger attended his funeral.

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WHO WAS COLUMBUS?

COLUMBUS -

A man has always had a burning desire to explore the world around him. This natural urge within him to discover and see what lies beyond his limited horizon has always led him to explore outside his own land. The explorers of ancient times often undertook perilous journeys across the seas as well as by land for trading, conquest and other purposes.

But events were somewhat different in the 14th and 15th centuries. It was the period of Renaissance when after a long gap, people again became interested in every aspect of art, science, architecture, and literature. New ideas and outlooks were emerging in all fields and the field of exploration was no exception. New lands and sea-routes were being discovered by European explorers. Columbus, a very brave and determined seaman, probably has earned the highest recognition in the history of exploration for his adventures. The most famous among his voyages was the one when he discovered the first sea-route to America, thereby opening it to the rest of the world.

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was a gifted voyager who had a dream to discover the sea-route to Indies (Asia) by sailing westwards. Sailors of those days used to sail east to reach China, Japan, and India and managed to bring plenty of gold, spices, and treasure. Columbus was convinced that Earth was not flat but round and thought he could reach Indies quicker by sailing west as this could be the shortest route. To translate his ideas into action, he approached the kings of Portugal and England for help who turned him down. Finally, Queen Isabella of Spain agreed to sponsor his voyage and provided him with ships, manpower, and money, required for the voyage.

Columbus sailed with 90 men in three small ships - Santa Maria, Nina, and Pinta. After sailing for three weeks without the sight of any land, his crews became restive, afraid and rebellious. Finally, on October 12, 1492, they reached an island in America which Columbus named as San Salvador which was an island in the Bahamas. He was convinced that it was the Indies and he was very near Japan. When he sailed around one island to another, he saw the inhabitants of those islands whom he thought were 'Indians'. That is why they are still called American Indians and the islands he first reached are called the West Indies. During the journey, the Santa Maria was wrecked off one island which he named Hispaniola. He left 40 of his men there to form a colony and then returned to Spain where he was given a hero's welcome.

Consequently, Columbus made another voyage and arrived at Hispaniola where he found that all 40 men he left had been murdered. This time ha also visited Jamaica. Some fellow sailors complained about his wild behavior and harsh rule as a viceroy. But he was permitted a third expedition in 1498 and this time he landed on Trinidad and also stepped on the mainland America.

Though Columbus excelled as an explorer yet he failed as a governor. When complaints about his misrule were made against him and his brother, he was replaced by a new governor who promptly arrested him and sent him back to Spain. He was later pardoned and given an opportunity to make one more voyage. This time he was sure that he had reached near the mouth of the Ganges in India. He returned to Spain as a sick man, died in poverty still with the belief that he had in fact reached 'Indies'.

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WHO WAS PICASSO?

PICASSO -

Every art lover in the world has heard of the name Picasso. The famous Spanish painter and sculptor, Pablo Picasso, holds the honor of being one of the greatest and the most celebrated and the most celebrated artist of the 20th century as well as one of the most productive artists in the world history. During his 78 years of continuous artistic work, Pablo Picasso produced 13,500 paintings, 1,00,000 prints and engravings, 34,000 book illustrations, and 300 pieces of sculpture. These works are valued at over $690,000,000.

Picasso was born in Malaga, Spain, on October 25, 1881. His father was an art teacher in Malaga. It is said that Picasso as a child had already learned drawing before he could speak. At the age of 14, he could cover the lessons from an art school on a day that most people needed a month to take. By the age of 16, he had passed all the tests that Spain's art schools could offer. In 1904, he settled down in Paris and married Fernande Olive. He became famous only after his marriage.

Picasso disliked paintings that looked like photographs and admired the curving shapes of African sculpture. During the period between 1899 and 1905, he dealt with subjects like cabarets, race-courses, prostitutes, and drunkards. Later, however, he turned to the varied facets of life. After 1925, Picasso began to produce emotionally charged pictorial formulations of bodies and heads. In 1947, he took to pottery in a factory, and in 1948, he exhibited 150 pieces of painted pottery. Picasso may very well be called the 'Father of the modern art'. After the age of 85, till he was 90, he produced mythological scenes. He became more deeply involved with politics during the Spanish civil war. One of the most famous paintings of Picasso is 'Guernico', which shows the destruction of a Spanish town. His work was suppressed by the Nazis during the Second World War.

Picasso died in France on April 8, 1973.

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WHO WAS PLATO?

PLATO -

Plato was a great philosopher of ancient Greece whose writings and teachings still carry great importance. The works of this great thinker are read all over the world even now. He was a student of a Socrates and teacher of Aristotle. In fact, the ideas of Socrates were translated into writing by his great disciple Plato. He is also credited with implanting the seeds of Aristotle's thought and intellect.

Plato was born in 427 B.C. in Athens. He belonged to a wealthy aristocratic family and joined Socrates as his pupil at the age of 20. When Socrates was poisoned to death in 399 B.C., Plato left Athens in disgust and spent a few years traveling. But he returned soon to establish his famous Academy in Athens in 388 B.C. which is considered as the first university in the world.

Plato's teaching covered a wide range of subjects. But his views and thoughts on education, justice, ideal state, and ideal rulers are still hotly debated and discussed among the intellectuals. For him, 'philosophy' was the supreme thing and no learning is complete without it. He advocated the rule of philosophers, he said, "Either philosophers should be kings or kings should be philosophers". Justice for him was the performance of one's duties. His model code for ideal rulers suggested that rulers should neither get married nor own property. He said that there is an ideal world beyond the real world which can be experienced only in one's mind and man should always strive to bring the real world closer to the ideal one.

There is another interesting aspect of Plato's method of teaching. He did not permit his lectures at the Academy to be circulated in written form as he was afraid that readers outside the Academy might not understand his ideas correctly. His logic was that a man gets the opportunity to defend himself in a debate but can't do so in his writings. So when he started writing his ideas, he did so in the form of dialogues that provided the mention of different viewpoints along with his own.

Among his books, the most famous is The Republic which is a political dialogue providing
the requirements for an ideal state. This great philosopher died in Athens at the age of 80.

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WHO WAS CHARLES DARWIN?

CHARLES DARWIN -

For a long time, people believed that each form of life on the Earth appeared separately and that these forms of life have remained unchanged. Charles Darwin was the first scientist who condemned this belief and laid the foundation of the modern theory of evolution. According to his theory, evolution is the process by which all living things on Earth today descended from common ancestors that lived millions of years ago. All plants and animals have evolved in an orderly way and continue to change even now.

Charles Darwin was born in 1809. He received his education at Edinburgh University. He was fascinated by biology since his early days. When he was only 22, he got an opportunity to go around the world on a voyage, on the Beagle ship of England. The voyage lasted for 5 years and during this period Darwin saw many new countries and got the opportunity to study different creatures. It was on this voyage that Darwin formed many ideas on evolution and adaptation. After his return to England, Darwin received a letter from the naturalist Alfred Russell Wallace, who had formed a similar conclusion about evolution. A joint paper by Darwin and Wallace was read in 1858. Darwin then wrote an account of his voyage and published it in the form of a book. The title of the book was The Origin of Species by Natural selection. Its first edition was published in 1859. Setting a record, it was sold out on the very first day it appeared in the market. Darwin spent more than 20 years studying evolution.

The Origin of Species attempted to prove on the basis of Darwin's study that the living creatures had acquired their present shape and form after generations of evolution, and all of them had a common ancestry. In addition to this, his theory of natural selection explains that in the struggle for life only the fittest creature survives. Each organism differs slightly from its predecessor and in the course of time, they acquired their present form. The book caused an uproar when it was the first published.  Today, Darwin's theories are widely accepted. Darwin devoted his entire life to the study of complex problems of biological science. He avoided entering the controversies surrounding his work and left it to others to debate the supposed consequences of 'Darwinism'. The great naturalist died in 1882.

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HOW DOES MICROPHONE WORK?

MICROPHONE -

Radio and television stations make use of microphones. They are also used in public address systems and in motion pictures and phonograph records. The mouthpiece of a telephone is the simple type of microphone. Let us see what exactly a microphone is.

A microphone is a device which converts sound waves into electrical signals. These signals can then be broadcast through the air or sent over to distant points, where they can again be converted back into sound.

Microphones can be divided into two groups depending upon how they respond to sound waves. These are - the pressure type and the velocity type. The pressure type microphones contain a thin metal plate called a diaphragm. This is stretch like a drumhead inside a rigid frame. The diaphragm is a part of the electrical circuit. When the sound waves strike the diaphragm, it starts vibrations at the rate a same as the sound waves. These vibrations produce corresponding electric signals by changing the electric current that flows through the circuit.

The pressure microphones are of several types, such as a condenser microphone, a moving coil or a dynamic microphone, the crystal microphone and the carbon microphone. In the condenser microphone, the vibrating diaphragm changes the capacitance of a condenser. A moving coil microphone consists of a coil of wire attached to the diaphragm. As the diaphragm vibrates in response to the sound., the coil slides up and down the centerpiece of an M-shaped permanent magnet. The coil thus cuts through the magnetic lines of force which induce a fluctuating voltage in it. This fluctuating voltage represents the variations in sound pressure.

Crystal microphones make use of the piezoelectric effect. Whenever certain crystals, such as quartz, are bent or twisted, they generate an electric voltage. Such crystals are called piezoelectric crystals. In a crystal microphone, a piezoelectric crystal is firmly clamped at one end and attached at the other to a flexible diaphragm. When someone speaks before it, the sound waves make the diaphragm vibrate. Due to this, a pressure acts on the crystal, and as a result, an oscillating voltage is produced. This is picked up by the heads attached to the crystal surface. This is how sound waves are converted into electric signals and transmitted. A carbon microphone works like a telephone transmitter. In this, carbon granules vary the current to create a signal. Ribbon microphones have a metal ribbon instead of coils.

The velocity microphone has a light ribbon of aluminum foil loosely held in a strong magnetic field. The sound waves vibrate the ribbon. The movement of the ribbon in the magnetic field induces a current along its length which is picked up by the connecting leads. Several people including the American inventor Thomas Alva Edison have been credited with the invention of the microphone. The first practical microphone, however, was invented in 1878 by David Edward Hughes of United States. Other inventors who have contributed to the invention of the microphone are Emile Berliner, Philip Reis, Franus Blake and Henry Hunnings.

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HOW DO TRAFFIC LIGHTS WORK?

TRAFFIC LIGHTS -

The growing urbanization is a direct outcome of rapid industrialization owing to which a large population gest concentrated in the cities. This consequently, results in a heavy rush of vehicular traffic, which necessitates effective control and efficient management to avoid chaos and accidents.

Regulation of traffic is done either by uniformed men who use different hand gestures to send different signals to the drivers or by the use of traffic lights which indicate the desired signals to the drivers.

Traffic lights are found at most of the important crossings and junctions of the city. These lights are arranged one above the other on a pole and covered by glasses of three different colors, viz. green, orange and red. Red light indicates to stop, and green gives the 'go ahead' signal. Orange signals are used in between to prepare or get ready for the red signal - that it to slow down the vehicle. These lights either change at a preset time or in some cities sets of timed lights are connected together so that traffic can proceed along the main road-route at a certain controlled speed without stopping. But the modern day traffic lights are computerized and time intervals are not fixed but vary in tune with vehicular presence. But what is the working mechanism of all these types of traffic lights?

The lights with fixed timing run according to a preset timed cycle. If a vehicle pulls up just as the signals changes from green to red, then it has to wait for the cycle to be completed till the light changes to green again even if no other vehicle is present in other directions of the crossing.

But in the modern style, timings of signals are not preset but respond to the presence of the vehicles. The technique used in this case is the setting up of a weak magnetic field through an electric wire buried under the road which is sensitive to the metal parts of the vehicle of the road. A computer- operated control box  senses this through the wire and if there are no other vehicles waiting to move in other directions then it flashes the green signal to the waiting vehicle, The computers also change the lights, and in the case of a centrally computerized traffic system, it is possible to operate sets of lights simultaneously to allow an easy and smooth flow of traffic.

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